Scope Case Study

STRATEGIC MARKETING Mid-Semester Exam Spring, 2009 Name: Erika Woodhouse 1. Evaluate the changes that have occurred in the Canadian mouthwash market in the past three years and their impact of Scope. Be specific. (20) In 1987 the growth rate for the mouthwash market experienced a 26 percent increase due to the introduction of new flavors. Brands were adding unique customization to attract consumers to their brand, and as a result the market as a whole grew. Since then the growth rate has declined to a level of 5 percent. 2. Management believes that the status quo is the best strategy. The team has been asked to make the case for and against this position, including in their discussion an evaluation of the positions of all or almost all members of the team. (20) a. _ Status quo_ b. _ Against status quo_ Scope should take action anddo something to compete with Plax and Listerine’s new claims. Proctor & Gamble states in their statement of purpose and strategy, â€Å"We will continuously stay ahead of competition while aggressively defending our established profitable business against major competitive challenges despite short term profit consequences. Therefore doing nothing is simple not an option. The market had an increase of 5 percent last year, while Scope suffered from a . 7 percent loss. Plax as a new competitor to the marked was able to achieve a 10 percent market share in over only three years, and will continue to grow and could take from our share if nothing is done. If we created a ‘better tasking pre-brush rinse’ we can also compare this to Scope when entered the market. Scope had all the same attributes of Listerine but offered a better taste, and was able to penetrate the market and be successful with a 12 percent market share in one year. 3. Management has wondered what impact the line extension strategy (using the Scope name) would have on overall profits of the Division if the price were held constant and if the price were increased 10 percent, assuming current volume. Accounting has provided the following information to assist in your analysis: Current variable cost: 20. 2/unit Variable cost likely increase with the line extension: 13% Total fixed cost: $2. 5 million + advertising, promotion, and general office costs. Scope should not introduce a line extension to compete. A line extension with the scope name would be likely to confuse its current customers. Also if the product fails it could reflect poorly on Scope. They also don’t have the ability to make a superior product; therefore they could hurt the brand image of providing qualit y and value.

Chemistry Lab Report on standardization of acid and bases Essay

Purpose: To prepare standardize solution of sodium hydroxide and to determine the concentration of unknown sulfuric acid solution. Data and Calculations: This experiment is divided into two parts (Part A and Part B). In the first part of experiment, the standardize solution of sodium hydroxide is prepared by titrating it with base Potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP). The indicator Phenolphthalein is used to determine that whether titration is complete or not. PART A: Standardization of a Sodium Hydroxide solution NaOH Sample Code = O Trial 1 Mass of KHP transferred = 0.42 g Volume of Distilled water = 25 mL Volume of NaOH used = 22.50 mL Molar mass of KHP = 204.22 g/mol No. of moles of KHP = Mass of KHP used / Molar mass = 0.42 g / 204.22 g/mol = 0.0021 moles Concentration of NaOH = No. of moles / Volume = [0.0021 mol / {(22.50 + 25) / 1000} L] * 100 = 4.4 M Trial 2 Mass of KHP transferred = 0.4139 g Volume of Distilled water = 25 mL Volume of NaOH used = 22.80 mL Molar mass of KHP = 204.22 g/mol No. of moles of KHP = Mass of KHP used / Molar mass = 0.4139 g / 204.22 g/mol = 0.0020267 moles Concentration of NaOH = No. of moles / Volume = [0.0020267 mol / {(22.80 + 25) / 1000} L] * 100 = 4.24 M Trial 3 Mass of KHP transferred = 0.4239 g Volume of Distilled water = 25 mL Volume of NaOH used = 23.10 mL Molar mass of KHP = 204.22 g/mol No. of moles of KHP = Mass of KHP used / Molar mass = 0.4239 g / 204.22 g/mol = 0.0020757 moles Concentratio n of NaOH = No. of moles / Volume = [0.0020757 mol / {(23.10 + 25) / 1000} L] * 100 = 4.32 M Trial 4 Mass of KHP transferred = 0.4311 g Volume of Distilled water = 25 mL Volume of NaOH used = 22.60 mL Molar mass of KHP = 204.22 g/mol No. of moles of KHP = Mass of KHP used / Molar mass = 0.4311 g / 204.22 g/mol = 0.0021109 moles Concentration of NaOH = No. of moles / Volume = [0.0021109 mol / {(22.60 + 25) / 1000} L] * 100 = 4.43 M Table: Trail 1 Mass weighing bottle + KHP (g) Mass empty weighing bottle (g) Mass of KHP transferred (g) Initial volume of burette, Vi (mL) Final Volume of burette, Vf(mL) Volume of NaOH used (mL) Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 11.561 11.6217 11.6113 11.6329 11.1461 11.2078 11.1874 11.2018 0.4200 0.4139 0.4239 0.4311 4.30 6.30 10.1 33.20 26.80 29.10 33.20 55.80 22.50 22.80 23.10 22.60 Concentration of NaOH (moles/L) 4.4 4.24 4.32 Average concentration of NaOH = [4.4 M + 4.24 M + 4.32 M + 4.43 M] / 4 = 4.35 M 1. % Difference between Trial 1 and Trail 2 = [4.24 M / 4.4 M] * 100 % = 96.3 % Difference = (100 – 96.3) % = 3.7 % 2. % Difference between Trial 2 and Trail 3 = [4.24 M / 4.32 M] * 100 % = 98.1 % Difference = (100 – 98.1) % = 1.9 % 3. % Difference between Trial 3 and Trail 4 = [4.32 M / 4.43 M] * 100 % = 97.5 % Difference = (100 – 97.5) % = 2.5 % 4.43 Observations: KHP is white color crystals and has definite shape. NaOH is clear and transparent solution with no color. In the first trial, after adding 90 drops of NaOH solution there was repeatedly appearance and disappearance of light pink color. When the whole solution of KHP and water get titrated then, the color of solution becomes light pink and it stays permanently. The same color changes happen with the next three trials. Concentration of NaOH was almost similar for every trials. PART B: Concentration of Sulfuric Acid solution H2SO4 Sample Code = 34 Trial 1: Volume diluted acid = 25 mL Volume of NaOH used = 14.39 mL H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) 2H2O (l) + 2Na2SO4 (aq) Average concentration of NaOH = 4.35 M No. of moles of NaOH = (Average concentration of NaOH) * (Volume of NaOH used) = 4.35 M * (14.39 / 1000) L = 0.0626 moles No. of moles of H2SO4 = 0.0626 mol / 2 = 0.0313 moles Concentration of H2SO4 = No. of moles / (volume of diluted acid / 1000) = 0.0313 mol / (25 / 1000) L = 1.2 M Trial 2: Volume diluted acid = 25 mL Volume of NaOH used = 13.51 mL H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) 2H2O (l) + 2Na2SO4 (aq) Average concentration of NaOH = 4.35 M No. of moles of NaOH = (Average concentration of NaOH) * (Volume of NaOH used) = 4.35 M * (13.51 / 1000) L = 0.0588 moles No. of moles of H2SO4 = 0.0588 mol / 2 = 0.0294 moles Concentration of H2SO4 = No. of moles / (volume of diluted acid / 1000) = 0.0294 mol / (25 / 1000) L = 1.2 M Trial 3: Volume diluted acid = 25 mL Volume of NaOH used = 14.10 mL H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) 2H2O (l) + 2Na2SO4 (aq) Av erage concentration of NaOH = 4.35 M No. of moles of NaOH = (Average concentration of NaOH) * (Volume of NaOH used) = 4.35 M * (14.10 / 1000) L = 0.0613 moles No. of moles of H2SO4 = 0.0613 mol / 2 = 0.0307 moles Concentration of H2SO4 = No. of moles / (volume of diluted acid / 1000) = 0.0307 mol / (25 / 1000) L = 1.2 M Trial 4: Volume diluted acid = 25 mL Volume of NaOH used = 14.20 mL H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) 2H2O (l) + 2Na2SO4 (aq) Average concentration of NaOH = 4.35 M No. of moles of NaOH = (Average concentration of NaOH) * (Volume of NaOH used) = 4.35 M * (14.20 / 1000) L = 0.0618 moles No. of moles of H2SO4 = 0.0618 mol / 2 = 0.0309 moles Concentration of H2SO4 = No. of moles /  (volume of diluted acid / 1000) = 0.0309 mol / (25 / 1000) L = 1.2 M % Difference between Trail 1 and Trail 2 = [1.2 M / 1.2 M] * 100 % = 100 % Difference = (100 – 100) % =0% % Difference between Trail 1 and Trail 2 = [1.2 M / 1.2 M] * 100 % = 100 % Difference = (100 – 100) % =0% % Diff erence between Trail 1 and Trail 2 = [1.2 M / 1.2 M] * 100 % = 100 % Difference = (100 – 100) % =0% % Difference between Trail 1 and Trail 2 = [1.2 M / 1.2 M] * 100 % = 100 % Difference = (100 – 100) % =0% Table 2: Trail 1 Volume diluted acid titrated (mL) Initial Volume of burette, Vi (mL) Final Volume of burette, Vf (mL) Volume NaOH used (mL) Concentration Of Sulfuric Acid Trail 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 25 25 25 25 2.41 17.20 8.50 22.60 16.94 30.71 22.60 36.80 14.39 13.51 14.10 14.20 1.2 M 1.2 M 1.2 M 1.2 M Observations: The H2SO4 is colorless and transparent liquid. The NaOH solution is colorless, odorless and transparent liquid. While doing the first trail, there were continuous appearance and disappearance of light pink color. After adding 10 mL of NaOH solution the pink color starts appearing. At certain volume the light pink color appeared, indicating that titration is done. The indictor phenolphthalein has no color and there was no specific odor of reagent. Discussion: Average concentration of NaOH solution was 4.35 M. There are many sources of error in this experiment as we got some percentage differences in the two different trials. For the Trial 1 and Trial 2, the percentage difference is 3.7 % which is significant difference to be noted. This percentage difference could occur due to many reasons such as not measuring the KHP properly as we got 0.42 g for first trial and 0.4139 g for second trial of KHP for performing titration but it is more than required value as per literature value is concerned (0.40 g). The almost same percentagedifference occurs for next two trials (1.9 % and 2.5 %). The KHP is always 99.9 % pure, so the titration should give perfect results (Lab Manual). The other possible errors was due to the disturbance on the shelf by other students where analytical balance is placed in balance room, as it cause variability in the values in weight of KHP. In Part B of experiment, the average concentration of sulfuric was found to be 1.2 M and there was 100 % titration of both reagent (NaOH and H2SO4). This 100 % results comes due to significant figures, if significant figures would not be concerned then there would be error of 1.0 % to 2.0 % in every two trials. There was identical difference of volume of NaOH used to titrate the acid for each  trial due to some possible errors. The possible errors in this Part of experiment were same as for Part A, as the process is followed in the same way. The most significant error could occur by not shaking the flask properly while adding sodium hydroxide solution and not recognizing the pink color on the instant it appears and adding the NaOH solution vigorously into the sulfuric acid. Questions: The 10 mL volumetric pipette is rinse 2 or 5 times to make sure there is no bubble inside because air bubble can cause error in the measurement of concentration because the actual volume of unknown will be less. The accuracy and precision for both sets of experiment was almost same as there were percentage difference of concentrations lies only in 2 % to 4 %. The endpoints of titration for each set of trails in both cases (Part A and Part B) were almost same but there is little difference in volume of NaOH used which cause errors in accuracy and precision of experiment. Using the analytical balance is really careful job as it is most accurate weighing machine with accuracy of 0.0004 g (Lab Manual) and we need to be prà ©cised using the balance but some few disturbance can cause big error such as disturbance other students on the shelf it is placed on and not reading the balance properly and taking measurements fastly. Using Volumetric glassware is other method to be more accurate in experiment but there are some possible random error while reading the values such as not reading the lower meniscus of liquid cause error and not removing the air bubble from the burette and using the beaker in place graduated cylinder in case of volume as graduated cylinder is more accurate as compared to beaker (0.02 g) (Lab Manual). Sources of Experimental Error include: The Analytical balance could give wrong reading because of the disturbance due to other students on the shelf it is placed on. Also, taking the reading rapidly and not considering the reading when balance display gets steady. The possible error can occur using wrong glassware like using beaker instead of graduated cylinder. The error could occur while taking reading through graduated cylinder and not considering the lower meniscus of liquid. The air bubble in burette can cause error in the true value of NaOH used. Few drops of liquid remain in burette and volumetric pipette which causes the error. Not shaking the flask properly while adding the NaOH solution. Adding the NaOH solution vigorously into the flask. Not recognizing the pink color instantly as it appears.  Adding the more drops of indicator as needed (2 or 3 drops). The biggest error occur due to leaking of NaOH solution form burette, we lost 4 drops during every one trial and it cause the significant error in reading the volume of NaOH used. There is water left after washing the glass wares which can cause the error. This lab could be improved by improving the method of drying the graduated cylinder and beaker before filling it with the NaOH solution. The glassware could be dried by small amount of acetone. Any acetone could be removed by evaporation. Finally, the experimenter should remove the clinging droplets to the neck of burette and volumetric pipette by using Kim Wipe. Conclusion: After careful consideration of all the results and all the possible concentration, it is concluded that the average concentration of NaOH (sample code O) was 4.35 M and average concentration of H2SO4 (sample code 34) was 1.2 M.

Leadership Development Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Leadership Development Plan - Essay Example The students have an obligation to be faithful, being steadfastly loyal and adhering to duty and true to one's word. Development of self-control to enable the student and the community to grow using self-restraint and good judgment skills in thought, words, and action. Promotion of humility accurately develops good qualities free from pride and arrogance. The state should encourage the value of being kind and appreciative of others placing their priority first. The organization of military and leadership clubs, which provide the integration of faith, based living and military mindset training the students of good leadership skills in the military environment (Akers 61).Indiana State should encourage creation of recognized university student organizations to instill perfect leadership qualities among the college students preparing them for future leadership. The State’s education system considers students first by focusing on the individuals who promote real learning of student s every day. The devotion and hard work of teachers lead to the success of the students in treating them as professionals with the prospect of making great leaders in the future. The Indiana state government should improve the health care system to ensure that all the students are medically sound to access their education without much complication.The Medicare advancements would guarantee the physical health of many students in schools and college while increasing the number of intellectuals in the society.

Report on an operational problem from the real world with a focus in Essay

Report on an operational problem from the real world with a focus in FINANCE - Essay Example The company has been forced to recall the cars because part of the engine cylinder overheats and cracks due to stress. This causes oil leakages onto the exposed, hot engine parts and causes fires. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has reported at least thirteen engines Ford engine fires in the United States and one in Canada caused by cracked cylinder heads. Approximately 11,500 cars that were recalled in July 2012 were splitting and leaking gasoline due to fault fuel lines (Jensen, 2013). In 2013, Ford had recalled almost all Escape models for carpet padding, which interfered with the use of the brake pedal. Other reasons for increased recalls by Ford include fixing engine plugs leak and fixing child locks. The Supply Chain Management tools that can be applied to the problem include sigma-sigma, lean manufacturing, and assembly line balancing. The company expects to reduce the number of car recalls by 87% after applying the three management tools. Keywords: Ford Motor C ompany, cars, Six-Sigma, defective Background Information The Ford Company recalls problem was retrieved from a business articles. The author of the article was Christopher Jensen. The article is entitled Ford Discloses Two New Recalls for the 2013 Escape and was published on November 27, 2013 by the New York Times news agency. Ford Motor Company is an American International automaker with headquarters in Dearborn, Michigan (Flory, 2013). The company manufactures and sells commercial vehicles under the Ford brand name and luxurious cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford invented strategies for large-scale manufacturing of cars and management of an industrial workforce using elaborately engineered manufacturing sequences characterized by assembly lines. The company’s net income as at the end of December 12, 2012 was US$ 5,665,000 (Flory, 2013). According to Flory (2013), Ford Motor Company is the second-largest automaker in the United States, and the fifth worldwide based on the 2 012 vehicle sales. Currently, Ford has more than 90 plants and 213,000 employees. Problem Description The primary problem of Ford Motor Company is how to improve assembly processes in order to reduce the number of car recalls. Car recalls occur because the company manufactures and assembles cars with several defects such as oil leakages, defective braking systems, and unfixed special locks, leading to repeats and repairs. Repeat manufacturing and repairs causes companies to incur additional manufacturing costs, which reduce the company’s profits and increase the losses (Hull, 2011). Additionally, increasing car recalls is scaring away both current and prospective customers, leading to widespread market reduction. The company needs to adopt proper manufacturing, operation and management tools/concepts in order to achieve zero defects and reduce the amount of reworks. Operations and Supply Chain Management Concepts/tools to be used1.5 Six-sigma Six-Sigma is a set of tools and t echniques for operations and process improvement; it seeks to improve the quality of the processes by using a set of quality management methods such as statistical methods to create special infrastructure of people within the organization (Desai, 2010). Manufacturing companies that need to improve manufacturing processes and achieve zero defects apply Six-Sigma quality tools. Hull (2011) argues that using six-Sigma methodologies such as

Human Ecology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Human Ecology - Essay Example According to various studies undertaken regarding food consumption within the U.S, approximately a third of the total calories are obtained through junk foods (Adams, 2004). This can be associated with the elevated cases of obesity among the U.S populace. Conversely, LDC for instance Haiti depend on indigenous diets that often offer diverse nutrients thus providing balanced calories for the populace. However, the diets that LDCs obtain have little animal-related food sources, although the small amounts meet biochemical demands (Molnar & Iva, 2000). In return, the populace has managed to maintain proper health, thus reducing cases of diseases for instance obesity within its populace. Diets often vary with reference to regions with rural diets being healthful matched with urban diets. Urban diets are deprived since families depend on junk foods while rural families take up traditional diets that are considered superior. Though wealthy communities have most options regarding their diets; they often misuse these options and opt to take up the least nutritious meals or take up excessively. The diets vary with regard to economic capabilities, lifestyles and regional preferences. Diseases have an impact both at individual and societal levels since certain diseases may be communicable. Additionally, once a disease affects an individual, the society suffers since it cannot obtain the services that the individual offers within the community or other economical contributions. Therefore, diseases affect both the individuals together with the community that this individual serves. Currently, inadequate water supply has hit most regions across the globe threatening to trigger disease outbreaks commonly related to sanitation. These diseases may include cholera that has profound impacts on individuals together with the populace. Additionally, numerous disease

Theories relevant to my study Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Theories relevant to my study - Assignment Example This mode of teaching advocates for acknowledgement of cultural heritages. Thus, it provides the students with a wide range of instructional strategies which support their different learning habits (Lynch, 2011). There are various theories that are associated with culturally responsive pedagogy. These include Maslow’s hierarchy of need theory, McClellan Acquired Needs Theory and the Self-Determination theory by Richard Ryan. Maslow’s hierarchy of need theory bases its arguments on self-actualization, esteem, belongingness, safety and psychological needs of a person. Acquired needs theory focus on the need for achievement, affiliation and power (Analytitech, n.d). On the other hand, the self-determination theory focuses on human motivation and personality (Intime, 2002). Therefore, it is evident that these theories illustrate that students should be provided with conducive condition for them to learn. They provide a basis whereby teachers can understand the diverse learning needs of the students so that they can improve their performance in class (Analytitech, n.d). In this perspective therefore, it is important for the administration of schools to re-evaluate and re-shape the school curriculum so that the diverse academic needs of the students can be addressed in an appropriate

Trends in Health Information Systems and Applications (M4C) Essay

Trends in Health Information Systems and Applications (M4C) - Essay Example In the recent years, the use of technology in managing information about medications, doctors’ orders, laboratory results, vital signs, nurses’ notes, and other data related to a specific patient, has been tested and employed by institutions to determine its capability to improve the outcomes of the patient care provided by the health care team. According to Winter et al., (2011), a health information system (HIS) is a system that which â€Å"comprises all the information processing† involved in healthcare delivery through the use of interlinked computers that allow a centralized storage of data for the different health departments and individuals (e.g., pharmacy, laboratory, nursing department, physicians, etc.) which contribute to the overall care provided to patients. Although some studies pointed out the lack of specificity of the benefits of HIS to healthcare institutions, its disadvantages (e.g., ethical issues related to information privacy, human-computer interaction problems, etc.) as well as its cost (Kuhn & Giuse, 2001), findings from other reliable researches serve proof to the emerging importance of keeping a centralized health electronic records storage (Chaudhry et al., 2006).

The Relationship Between Risk and Expected Rate of Return in CAPM Statistics Project

The Relationship Between Risk and Expected Rate of Return in CAPM - Statistics Project Example In the opinion of Roll and Ross (1980, pp.1073-1103.), this theory had considerable significance in empirical work during the 1960s and 1970s. However further researches on this concept have questioned its reliability and authenticity of the computation of empirical constellation of asset returns; and, many related theories have detected ranges of disenchantment with the CAPM. As a result, the most widespread CAPM underwent harsh criticisms not only by the academicians but also by financial experts. In addition, empirical researchers have gathered a range of evidence against this model during the last few decades. That evidence questioned the model’s assumptions and argued the dead of the beta. Roll and Ross (1980, pp.1073-1103.) say that this situation led to the demand for a more potential theory and it caused the formulation of Arbitrage Pricing Theory (APT). Although APT was developed recently, CAPM is considered as the basis of modern portfolio theory. According to Shanke n (1982, pp.1129-1140), the ATP is not more susceptible to empirical verification than the CAPM. The author also challenges the testability of arbitrage pricing theory as he finds that the basic elements of testability strategy would not properly work in the case of this model. He also points out that the theory precludes the differentials of expected return that form the basic structure of the concept. Huberman and Wang (2005, pp. 1-18) claim that both the CAPM and APT show relation between expected returns of assets and their covariance with other random variables.

Importance of Measuring and Managing Performance Essay Example for Free

Importance of Measuring and Managing Performance Essay It is very important to measure and manage employee performance at Leyton Sixth Form College. The consequences if they don’t manage performance is that teachers won’t know whether they are progressing or not. Whether they’re way of teaching is effective or not. It is important for new employees to assess their performance so that management can make judgements on measuring performance will enable teachers to know where they stand and have a clear view on what skills they need to improve on. Motivation is important in LSC because it gets the employee to work as hard as possible. t helps push employees to achieve targets set. By identifying areas where an employee may be losing his colleagues, a personal development plan can be put in place. Similarly, if a negative trend is seen among a number of employees, company controls and procedures can be evaluated to address these problems at a general level. Measuring and managing performance helps LSC look at employee progress to see whether they are achieving all their targets. Also the importance of managing performance is to give good motivation for employees to work hard since they are being evaluated. LSC do an employee evaluation that gives teachers constructive criticism and an idea on what they need to work on and what they doing a good job on. Measuring performance benefit LSC as they reveal the good and bad aspects of a given job. They improve the relationships and moral within the organisation. Another important matter is that measuring and managing performance helps improve the performance of individuals to ultimately improve the efficiency and productivity of the company. Which in LSC case is the staff by doing performance developments and appraisals can help employees reach their full potentials.

6 master plans Essay Example for Free

6 master plans Essay 1. LOI 39/2001 SANDIGAN MASTER PLAN (Anti-Criminality Master Plan) dated 03 December 2001 This Plan shall serve as the Master Plan in which all plans and programs of the PNP shall conform with and supplement. It shall prescribe the grand strategy to be undertaken by PNP Offices and personnel on crime prevention, control and suppression, in the total fight against all forces of criminality. 2. LOI 40/2001 SANDUGO MASTER PLAN (The PNP ISO Master Plan) dated 04 December 2001 This serves as the long-range and holistic master plan of the PNP in waging an internal security support operations nationwide. Premised on the estimate of the national situation and other considerations, it prescribes the counter-insurgency support strategy, operational concept, scheme of implementation, service support and coordinating instructions in order to accomplish the PNPs internal security support mission. 3. LOI 42/2001 SANGYAMAN MASTER PLAN dated 06 December 2001 (Pnps Master Plan To Help Protect And Preserve Our Environment, Cultural Properties And Natural Resources) See more: Social process essay This master plan prescribes the guidelines to be followed by tasked PNP Units/Offices in assisting lead government agencies in the enforcement of laws over Philippine territorial waters, lakes, rivers, mountain ranges, forest, to include laws and ordinances that have been set forth to preserve, protect and enhance our environment and natural resources, in close coordination with the Department of the Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) and other tasked government agencies. 4. LOI 43/2001 SANG-BANAT MASTER PLAN (Pnps Master Plan For The Campaign against Illegal Drugs) dated 07 December 2001 This master plan sets forth the concept of operations, operational guidelines and tasks of all PNP units/offices in the total fight against illegal drugs: integrating/orchestrating the activities of all concerned National Government Agencies (NGAs) in the conduct of anti-illegal drug campaign at the national down to barangay levels. LOI 44/2001 SANG-INGAT MASTER PLAN (Master Plan On Security Preparations) dated 10 December 2001 This Master Plan sets forth the strategic concepts and operational guidelines, as well as contingency plan to ensure the maintenance of peace and order during the year-round observance of holidays, which involves great concern on movement of the citizens, international, national and local meeting/conferences/events, and rallies/mass action in protest to wide range  of issues. 6. LOI 45/2001 SAKLOLO MASTER PLAN (MASTER PLAN ON DISASTER PREPAREDNESS) dated 12 December 2001 This Master Plan sets forth the strategic concepts, operational guidelines and coordinating instructions to be undertaken by PROs and tasked units/offices on disaster management. With this Letter of Instructions, the action that will be undertaken by the concerned PNP units/offices will be as responsive and possible with the support of the government agencies and community.

Cultural Research of Nayar of India

Cultural Research of Nayar of India This research paper provides insights into the Political Organization, Gender Relations, and Beliefs and Values of the agrarian state and cultural practices of the Nayar people of southwestern India. By understanding the Nayar culture, people may better understand and appreciate cultural differences between the Nayar culture and that of their own. In the essay, Some Aspects of Nayar Life Panikkar (1918) states, The Nayars are at present an essentially agricultural population. The vast majority of them are peasant proprietors owning small farms. Rice and coco-nuts are the chief things cultivated, though in North Malabar pepper and card oman have also their share (p.285). It should also be noted that states are much more complex and stratified than chiefdoms, so it is not feasible to rely solely on kinship as a recruitment method. In state systems, land ownership and occupation are at least as important as kinship as a system of organization; the state itself becomes a key institution of organization. (Nowak, et al., 2010, ch.7.8, n. p.). Of particular interest is the fact that the Nayar as with other caste societies, marry within their own caste. While this similarity with other endogamous societies helps to preserve the class of people, the Nayar marriage practices vary considerably from other agrarian states and caste for which I explain later. Political Organization The political system among the Nayar people has as with most cultures that have been the target of colonialism and capitalism, seen considerable change over last several hundred years. Much of the former kinship, matrilineal and political structures and systems of the Nayar culture have all but vanished. Kathleen Gough (1952), stated that Later in the nineteenth century, more deep-rooted economic changes took place, and these have increased in momentum until all the traditional groupings of caste, village and lineage are dis-integrating (p. 79). The political and economic influence during the later part of 19th century by the British probably had the most notable impact on the Nayar people. European military forces and government structures as well as the introduction of machines played a significant role in the changing political and economic structures and systems as well as building of permanent roads and railroads. The introduction of new trading opportunities, realignment of jobs, tighter controls to ensure peace, increased use of monetary currency, and broader reaching governmental jurisdiction across caste and villages played a vital role in redesigning the Nayar culture and politics as well. Evidence of this breaking down of prior systems has been described as The expansion of trade, the introduction of new technological devices, and the opening up of new occupations, produce new economic classes between which there is mobility, and which to some extent cut across the affiliations and ranking of caste. (Gough, 1952, p. 81). Through the elimination of caste ranking, socioeconomic and sociopolitical class rankings no longer limit Nayar people from changing class levels and limits have become more aligned with performance and education. With the introduction of formal government, monetary systems, increased import and export as well as technological advances, the former Nayar methods of controlling the distribution of wealth, food and other trade labor as well as class distinctions have resulted in a more capitalistic society. Along with these changes, the Nayar people are increasingly integrating practices common in more advanced capitalistic and socialistic society forms of government, business, and family relationships. Gender Relations Anthropologists studying the Nayar society of southwestern India continue to struggle with defining certain aspects of gender relations in a western context. One such area of significant interest and difficulty is in contrasting Nayar marriage with marriage in western society and terms. While marriage may be seen by many as a cultural universal even in consideration of variations such as polygamy, the Nayar marriage purpose and experience is quite different from marriages in most other societies. Perhaps, such significant differences would be more understandable if a different term other than marriage was used to represent Nayar marriage. One example of the differences in Nayar marriages as stated by Miriam Koktvedgaard (2008) was that The Nayar of India practiced a form of non-fraternal polyandry in which several men were simultaneously the husbands of one wife. Usually only the first husband underwent a ritual marriage with the woman before she entered puberty (p.11). This cultural practice appears to be an extraordinary characteristic of the Nayar unlike most other marriage constructs. Not so much perhaps as a woman having multiple simultaneous husbands although rare, but having ritual marriages with a woman that has not reached puberty. In order to further elaborate on the marriage of girls that have not yet reach puberty, I should explain that Before a girl reaches puberty, a Nayar girl is married to a man as a rite of passage. The man she marries has no rights to the girl, and she has no obligation to him. When she is older, the girl is allowed to enter into other marriages and have children with those husbands. (Nowak, et al., 2010, ch 7.8, n.p.) Anthropologist suspect that by maintain a loosely committed marriage relationship with both men and women being sexually active with other mates or spouses, it allows men to stay away for long periods of time with little affect on the family system. Another characteristic of the Nayar gender relationship was with regard to the definition of the domestic unit or nuclear family in that The central Nayar domestic unit consisted of a mother, her daughters and their children; husbands and wife did not set up house together (Koktvedgaard, 2008, p. 11). While for some it may be difficult to show proper respect for the differences in marriage practices and to fully comprehend how the standard definition of a domestic unit that does not include a husband or father could exist, these are important distinctions remain. Interactions by an outsider with beliefs that differ from Nayar gender relations and beliefs could easily produce criticisms or a sense of condemnation which could quickly derail otherwise honest attempts at gaining progress or cooperation. It has been recognized however that the influence of British colonization and the exposing of criticisms and by force that the matrilineal change to patrilineal form of family organization has been made. Beliefs and Values Over thousands of years of considerable influence by mainstream religious faith denominations such as Christianity, Judaism, and Hinduism, the Nayar have been substantially un-phased in adopting one of the recognized religions. Evidence of the lack of adoption of a primary religion by the Nayar is stated as Nothing shows so much the extreme persistence of primitive culture, even in the face of higher civilising agencies, than the wide and almost universal acceptance of spirit-worship, and the almost entire absence of religious life among the Nayars after at least twenty centuries of contact with Hinduism Panikkar, (1918), p.277. While the Nayar do use Hindu temples for worship and ceremonies, the nature of these particular practices are not recognized under any Hindu creed or other religion for that matter. The Nayar belief in magic and spirit worship continues although they are recognized leaders in literature and music within their culture and subsequently would not be considered uncivilized. Another characteristic of the Nayar people is where they fit within a caste society. A caste is an endogamous social grouping into which a person is born and within which a person remains throughout his or her lifetime. It is an ascribed position. (Nowak, et al., 2010, ch 7.8, n.p.). Within these groupings, marriages and other interactions which were tightly controlled even forbid physical touch across caste. With the capitalistic evolution and exposure to western culture, the adherence too many of the cross-caste practices continue to see change. The impact on discussions or considerations concerning life, business or religion with Nayar people considering both the likely absence of common religious beliefs and belief in magic and spirit worship could be significant. Consider a Christian believer entering into discussion with a Nayar community by condemning Nayar core religious beliefs in hopes of collecting contributions for acquiring land for a new church. In this example, it is unlikely this approach would succeed given criticism of beliefs as a basis for support. If religious beliefs vary as significantly as I have described, what is valued is also in conflict. These differences would then become obstacles in coming together towards common goals if not taken into consideration prior to presenting a position introducing mutually beneficial outcomes in which both parties increase items or results of value. Conclusion The Nayar depended largely on rice for food and to a lesser extent vegetables, fish, and poultry. The formation and growth of families was largely relative to the amount of land they owned and the class of house. The ownership or family structure that developed as a result was more of a community or corporate type of ownership model which was significantly linked to the women and her side of the family in years past. The Nayar are heavily involved in politics and other forms of industrialized production observable by the number of local printing businesses while continuing their tradition of agriculture. In many ways, the Nayar people and culture has adopted many aspects of American and European culture. By gaining a better understanding of the Nayar political organizations, gender relations, and beliefs and values, people from other cultures will better understand and appreciate the cultural differences. This enhanced awareness will be beneficial in helping to offer solutions to problems in government, business growth, housing, and as other forms of industry are introduced or sought out.

The Ethics of Gun Control Essay -- Constituton Bill Rights Right To Be

The Ethics of Gun Control The phrase "Gun Control" means different things to different people. One bumper sticker states that "Gun Control means hitting your target." However one defines gun control, the mere mention of it brings controversy. Opposing sides have for years fought over the laws that govern firearms. For the purposes of this paper "Gun Control" is defined as policies enacted by the government that limit the legal rights of gun owners to own, carry, or use firearms, with the intent of reducing gun crimes such as murder, armed robbery, aggravated rape, and the like. So defined, gun control understandably brings favorable responses from some, and angry objections from others. The gun control debate is generally publicized because of the efforts of the Pro-Gun Lobby or the Anti-Gun Lobby. The best known of the Pro-Gun Lobby is the NRA, headed by Charlton Heston and Wayne LaPierre. The Anti-Gun Lobby includes such organizations as Handgun Control, Inc., The Violence Policy Center, and the ACLU, and is commonly associated with such figures as Sarah Brady. It is doubtful that anyone would dispute that reducing violent crime is a good thing. Most pro-gun lobbyists will concede that guns are used in violent crimes, and that guns act as an enabler for criminals. It is impossible to deny that mass shootings could not be carried out without guns. This fact is generally the basis of the anti-gun movement. They argue that since guns are commonly used in the commission of crimes, and since guns are inherently dangerous because of their primary function (the primary function being the destruction of the target), that guns should therefore be outlawed. The pro-gun... ...der rate because Americans own so many guns." http://www.guntruths.com/myths/united_states_has_such_a_high_mu.htm. 28 July 1999. "Only the police are trained enough and responsible enough to carry guns". http://www.guntruths.com/myths/only_the_police_are_trained_enou.htm. 28 July 1999. "Proof Positive: Gun Control Increases Violent Crime". http://www.guntruths.com/resource/australia.htm. 28 July 1999 Reese, Charley. "American Citizens Have the Right to Bear Arms". http://www.guntruths.com/guest% 20correspondent/american_citizens_have_a_right.htm. 28 July 1999. Schultz, Daniel J. "It's Hard to Argue With the Founders". http://www.guntruths.com/schultz/it.htm. 28 July 1999. "This is America. The government is never going to turn into a tyranny." http://www.guntruths.com/myths/tyranny.htm. 28 July 1999.

Volpone :: volpone

Volpone  Ã‚   Volpone was first brought out at the Globe Theatre in 1605 and printed in quarto in 1607, after having been acted with great applause at both Universities, and was republished by Jonson in 1616 without alterations or additions. Volpone is undoubtedly the finest comedy in the English language outside the works of Shakespeare. Daring and forcible in conception, brilliant and faultless in execution, its extraordinary merits have excited the enthusiasm of all critics. The great French historian of English literature, Henri Taine, has devoted to it some of the most splendid pages of his famous work. â€Å"Volpone,† he exclaims, Å“uvre sublime, la plus vive peinture des mÅ“urs du sià ¨cle, oà ¹ s’à ©tale la pleine beautà © des convoitises mà ©chantes, oà ¹ la luxure, la cruautà ©, l’amour de l’or, l’impudeur de vice, dà ©ploient une poesie sinistre et splendide, digne d’une bacchanale du Titien. In none other of his plays, not even in The Alchemist, in Bartholomew Fair, or in The Silent Woman, is Ben Jonson’s prodigious intellect and ardent satirical genius so perfectly revealed as in Volpone. The whole of Juvenal’s satires are not more full of scorn and indignation than this one play, and the portraits which the Latin poet has given us of the letchers, dotards, pimps and parasites of Rome, are not drawn with a more passionate virulence than the English dramatist has displayed in the portrayal of the Venetian magnifico, his creatures and his gulls. Like Le Misanthrope, Le Festin de Pierre, like L’Avare, Volpone might more fitly be styled a tragedy, for the pitiless unmasking of the fox at the conclusion of the play is terrible rather than sufficient. Volpone is a splendid sinner and compels our admiration by the fineness and very excess of his wickedness. We are scarcely shocked by his lust, so magnificent is the vehemence of his passion, and we marvel a nd are aghast rather than disgusted at his cunning and audacity. As Mr. Swinburne observes, â€Å"there is something throughout of the lion as well as the fox in this original and incomparable figure.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Volpone’s capacity for pleasure is even greater than his capacity for crime, and Ben Jonson has added to these two salient characteristics a third, which is equally dominant in the Italian—the passion for the theatre. Disguise, costume, and the attitude have an irresistible attraction for him, the blood of the mime is in his veins.

Healthcare Utilization

Health care reform is a not only an ongoing topic of debate statewide, but nationwide as well. Health care reform is a popular topic right now all over the United States. This paper will discuss the various ways that health care reform measures have expanded or inhibited access to care as well as how these changes effect the utilization of healthcare. Also covered will be universal health care, a discussion of what this consists of and how current care identifies or contrasts with it (University of Phoenix, 2013). The cost for a patient receiving care has been on a steady incline, nearing â€Å"$2. 6 trillion in 2010, over ten times the $256 billion spent in 1980,† (Kaiser Foundation, 2013, para. 1). Contributing to these rising costs is advanced medical technology. Not only does the updated technology affect the cost of health care, but it offers patients a more updated, safer solution compared to equipment and procedures of the past. The rising cost of health care seriously impacts people who may already be suffering financially, denying them the ability to receive proper medical care. There are a limited amount of Americans that can afford routine care with a primary care doctor. Many patients are forced to resort to using the emergency room on an as needed basis. In order to ensure more Americans receive the health care they need, a change in the system must occur. Health care reform is built upon the current health insurance system as a way of providing access to system to provide more people with the ability to gain medical insurance coverage. Health reform also establishes an easy way for consumers to compare and purchase health insurance as well as protect consumers legally. The current plan for health care reform will make it possible for low income families to qualify for medical coverage through federal programs. The health reform will also encourage additional employers to provide health insurance policies that cover preventative measures for employees. This reform would also protect patients from unreasonable rate increases to their policies. Although health care reform is intended to increase the accessibility of healthcare, it also comes with the potential to be a financial disaster for he government and patients alike. Becoming effective in 2014, The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act will require states to cover individuals with incomes not exceeding 133 percent of the federal poverty level, under the age of 65 and not eligible for Medicare or Medicaid. â€Å" The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act will ensure that all Americans have access to quality, affordable health care and will create the transformation within the health care system necessary to contain costs,† (Responsible Reform, 2012, para. ). One issue that will still be present will be the limited access to preventative and primary care because Medicaid will only ensure non-routine visits. Forcing patients to visit emergency departments or urgent care offices will increase costs and pose a threat to not only the patients but the physicians, hospitals, and government agencies behind the funding (Douglas Holtz-Eakin, 2010). Health care reform will not only affect patient coverage but will force changes within the utilization of health care as well. The changes made from health care reform have a major impact on health care by influencing the level of spending within the health care industry. These rates of health care utilization are direct indicators of the type of care patients are seeking. The rates also define how services may vary from one region to the next. As noted above, health care reform will expand patient utilization of the emergency department and urgent care offices nationwide. Universal healthcare would be an example everyone being covered for basic healthcare services, and no individual would be denied care as long as they are legal residents in the geographical area covered. The ideal concept would assure that all citizens should have access to affordable, quality health care which differs from the current system. Universal health care programs are government directed through various regulations, mandates, and laws that determine the type of care provided and who is eligible for coverage. Universal health care is a publicly funded health care delivery system. There are certain instances where the patient will be responsible for partial costs, the portion the single payer insurance did not cover. The opposing argument against universal health care is that doctors accepting the insurance offered through the universal program would make less money, therefore influencing the level of care provided to patients. Some also believe it is each individual’s responsibility to take care of their medical coverage, not the responsibility of the government. Some feel it is yet another burden to the current fiscal crisis. They fail to realize the majority of the uninsured are employed citizens that simply cannot afford the rising costs of care. One similarity of the current care in the United States with universal health care is Medicaid and Medicare. Patients covered by these programs must meet government guidelines and receive specific care that is covered by these. The difference between Medicaid/Medicare and universal healthcare is that there is no equality to health care accessibility; the government is determining who is eligible and what is covered. The government determines what services can receive and eligibility. Medical coverage in the United States appears to be a luxury in today’s economy and universal health care would change that view. As am insured dependent, I am covered by blue cross blue shield health insurance. I am able to see my primary care physician with a co-pay and very little out of pocket expenses upfront for minor illness, and accidents. If for some reason I wouldn’t have healthcare anymore. I would be eligible for Medicaid but compared to the coverage I currently have, it would not be much assistance but in an emergency. Not only would it limit my medical coverage, I would all but lose preventative care as well as dental coverage. If universal health care were put into effect through a health care reform, preventative care should be a necessity. Not only does it ensure good health of Americans, it cuts costs in the long run by preventing medical emergencies and undiagnosed conditions. While the health care reform is an ongoing debate, utilization of health care accessibility needs to expand. Coverage for all Americans needs to expand, not just providing access to an emergency room but preventive care as well. The concept of universal health care would ensure that all Americans receive access to quality health care.References Douglas Holtz-Eakin 2010, Healthcare reform and Medicaid: Patient Access, Emergency Department Use, and Financial Implications for States and Hospitals retrieved July 10, 2013 from: http://www.americanactionforum.org/files/HCR_Medicaid Kaiser Foundation (2013). U.S. health care costs. Retrieved July 10, 2013 from http://www.kaiseredu.org/Issue-Modules/US-Health-Care-Costs/Background-Brief. aspx Responsible Reform (2013). The patient protection and affordable care act. Retrieved July 10, 2013 from http://dpc.senate.gov/healthreformbill/healthbill04.pdf

Ozone Depletion and Monthly Test English

Pick out the nouns in each sentence. Write them on the sheet provided, Then, write A if the noun names a person, B- a place, C-a thing, and D – an event. Example: The boys played their toys. Answer: boys – person , toys – thing 1. Do you have a map of the Philippines? 2. The children were tired after their field trip. 3. Our parents always remind us to respect the elders. 4. The earthquake originated in Martinique. 5. Aunt Ana forgot her umbrella. B. Stem-option Directions: Choose an appropriate noun to complete each sentence.Write the letter of your answer on the sheet provided. 1. The athlete wave the Philippine all day. A. Frog b. Flag c. Flood 2. The strong typhoon blew down the on the road. A. Balloon b. Trees c. People 3. Brenda can't pay the phone bill because she has no c. Pony 4. The loud scared the children. A. Thunder b. Typhoon c. Earthquake 5. Animals in the circus do funny c. Tricks a. Feet C. Identification . A. Honey b. Money noun. Directions: Id entify the underline noun as common or proper Example: Linda is baking a cake for her family. Answer: Linda – proper noun 1. The Philippines has three major islands .Basketball Is a very popular sports in our country. 3. Hans Christian Andersen Is an author of classic children's stories. 4. â€Å"The Little 5. Some modern appliances contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer. II. READING A. Stem Option Variety Directions: Write the missing last two letters of the words given below. Make sure that the completed words fit the description of the phrases. Write the whole word on the sheet provided. Example: the same as a present gig_ Answer: gift 1. To go up the stairs – clip 2. The color produced when red and white are combined -pi ace as a disguise – ma 4. Meeting that is worn on the waist be 5. To open and close the eyes blip . 3. Is placed on the A. Directions: Pick -out the words with consonant digraphs. Write your answer on the sheet provided. Prepared by : Ms. Railway P. Eternal Grade School Department

Meteors Case Study Essay

Meteorites are rocks from space, which land on Earth, attracted by her gravity. The shooting stars that you see at night, are actually burning meteors that fall on Earth from outer space! This is the first of many interesting facts that are going to follow. Why do meteorites fall? For the same reason why anything falls on Earth – ‘Gravity’. Very few can escape it! Meteorites have their origin in outer space. They are relatively small pieces of dust and debris, usually left behind in the wake of a comet. Meteorites, that are huge in size, have their origin in space, as asteroids. They are left over pieces of matter from formation of the solar system, which could not clump together to form a planet like our Earth. There is a dense belt of such asteroids outside the orbit of the planet Mars, called the ‘Asteroid Belt’. Asteroids are huge in size and their lengths can number to kilometers! Once in a while, small pieces of rock or dust, come into range of Earth’s gravitational pull and fall on Earth as shooting stars. An asteroid dislodged from its trajectory and falling on Earth is also called a meteorite. However, an asteroid being huge in size, causes a cataclysmic explosion on Earth on impact. Origin ‘Meteor’ and ‘Meteorite’ facts are interchangeable terms and we shall see why they are so. When these rocks and pieces of dust are floating in space, they are called ‘Meteoroids’. When they make a blazing entry into Earth’s atmosphere, they are called ‘Meteors’. Finally, if they survive the burning entry into Earth’s atmosphere and fall on Earth, they are called ‘Meteorites’. So a meteorite could originate from comet debris called meteoroids or larger objects called asteroids! Here are some basic facts about meteorites, meteors and meteoroids. Comets leave tons of dust and debris in their trail as they travel along long orbits round the Sun. When Earth, while revolving around the Sun, passes through some patches of this comet debris, it enters the Earth’s atmosphere causing meteor showers. Meteor showers are periodic events. One can see thousands of meteors or shooting stars, as they are called, during such a shower. The most popular meteor showers are ‘Perseids’ (which peak around August 12) and Leonids (which peak around 17 November). During these showers, you can observe a shooting star at the rate of 1 meteor per minute on an average. A falling meteor can travel at speed of as much as 44 miles per second ! One of the facts is that they have some of the oldest rocks in the solar system among them. They could be older than the Earth and date from the period when Sun was forming! Every day, about 4 billion meteoroids fall on Earth! Majority of them are very tiny and therefore do not cause much harm. If a meteorite is observed while falling and recovered from the place of fall, it’s called a ‘fall’ meteorite. If a meteorite is not observed while falling, but found from any location, it’s called a ‘find.’ Till 2006, there have been roughly 1,050 witnessed falls while there are about 30,000 documented ‘Finds’. Falling meteors which are large in size, can create an intense electromagnetic pulse, which temporarily disrupt radio communication in the region of fall! With a properly designed radio antenna, you can actually ‘hear’ meteorites falling as radio noise. Types and Composition Here are some facts about their types and composition, that you should know about. Recovered meteorites are classified into three main categories which are ‘Chondrites’ (Make about 86% of all recovered meteorites), ‘Achondrites’ (8%) and ‘Iron’ meteorites (6 %). The name ‘Chondrites’ comes from features called ‘Chrondules’, which are melted silicate materials from their past. Chondrites are about 4.55 billion years old and are the types of rocks from which our own planet formed! Certain chondrite meteorites fallen from outer space contain traces of amino acids and organic matter, bolstering the theory that life may have been planted on Earth! This is one of the most astounding facts. Achronidtes are relatively younger meteorites of the igneous rock type and are pieces of asteroids, the Moon and Mars! Iron meteorites are composed of iron-nickel alloys and silicate materials. They are also thought to be pieces of asteroid s! Every one of these meteor facts are intriguing. Earth has been pounded by the impact of many meteorites, ranging from the very tiny to gigantic meteorites. The meteorites impact craters that are found on earth are testimony to this. It is time for the last of our facts. One gigantic meteorite impact occurred millions of years ago on Earth which brought on the extinction of dinosaurs! One question that may come to your mind is, ‘Where do meteorites fall?’. They could fall anywhere on Earth. Meteors have been found all over the world. The recent findings have been mostly in Africa and accessible parts of Antarctica. If you could find one, you are bound to be rich as private collectors and museums pay millions of dollars for them! The reason is that they are very rare and are made up of minerals, which are never found on Earth! So keep looking! You may never know, when one might pop out of the sky, making you rich. So it’s actually profitable to know some meteor fact s. Originating in the outer space, an object reaches Earth and gets a place in the list of meteorites. There have been many instances of extraterrestrial bodies impacting the Earth’s surface while some have only passed through the Earth’s atmosphere before they were destroyed. Meteorites have been arousing interest of the masses as there is an element of mystery that surrounds them. Where do they originate? What makes some of them enter the Earth’s atmosphere? How dangerous can they get? Space research and astronomy have revealed some interesting information about some of these questions and researched thoroughly on the different types of meteorites. Most of the meteorites disintegrate before reaching Earth while some reach the planet’s surface. Huge meteorites form craters on Earth while the smaller ones involve less danger. Meteorites containing small round particles are known as chondrites and form about 86% of those falling on Earth. Those similar in appearance to small igneous rocks are called achondrites and believed as being the crustal material of a steroids. Meteorites originating from the core of asteroids are known as iron meteorites and form about 5% of the meteorites, which fall. History has recorded a number of instances of meteorites impacting the Earth. ALH 84001: It was found in the Allan Hills, Antarctica in December 1984. Meteorite hunters of the United States working on ASMNET project discovered this meteorite. When discovered, its mass was 1.93 kilograms and its rock was reportedly one of the oldest forms. This meteorite was supposed to have come from Mars. Later it was believed to consist of some traces of the life on Mars and this made ALH 84001 more famous than ever. Hoba: This meteorite lies on the farm Hoba West in Namibia and has never been moved elsewhere because of its exceptionally greater mass. With a mass of about 60 tons, it is the largest meteorite known to mankind. It is tabloid in shape and composed of metal. It is believed to have landed on Earth about 80,000 years ago. In 1955, it was declared as a national monument and has since then been attracting visitors from different parts of the world. Tunguska Event: The Tunguska explosion took place in June 1908 near Tunguska River, now a part of Russia. Most probably, the air burst of a large meteorite caused this explosion. The energy emitted from this explosion was about 1000 times greater than that of the bomb blast of Hiroshima. According to the eyewitnesses of this explosion, the event started with a flash of bright blue light and a sound originating from east and moving northward. Later the sound was accompanied by shock waves that broke windows miles away. This was one of the famous disintegrating meteorites that remain in the list of world’s most famous meteorites. Willamette Meteorite: This is an iron-nickel meteorite that was discovered in the United States near Oregon. It is the largest of the meteorites found in the United Sates as also the sixth largest in the world. Probably the meteorite had landed in the region, which is now known as Canada. This meteorite weighing about 15.5 tons is one of the very large meteorites of the world. Orgueil: This meteorite fell in France in 1864 and is a relatively older meteorite. The fall of this meteorite consisted of small stones that covered a massive area. This is one of those eight meteorites that belong to the CL chondrite group. A striking feature of this type of meteorite it that its composition is similar to that of the Sun. This meteorite is one of the most researched ones. For purposes of deeper study of the composition of this meteorite, it was split into pieces. Currently, it exists in the form of pieces kept in different museums in Europe and the United States. These were some of the famous meteorites of the world. They have always been a subject of interest for researchers around the world. Meteor showers A meteor shower is a celestial event wherein it is observed that a group of meteors radiate from anyone point in the sky. This phenomenon is also known as ‘Meteor Storm’ or ‘Meteor Outburst’. The meteors that are present in the showers are actually cosmic debris that enter the Earth atmosphere at very high speed and vaporize very quickly due to friction leaving behind a streak of light which is known as the meteor shower. An identified meteor shower is usually an annual affair as the Earth will encounter the same meteors at approximately the same time and same speed every year. Causes Meteor showers are a result of interaction that takes place between the planet Earth and a comet. Comets consist of ice and rocks (often termed dirty ice balls) that orbit around the sun like planets. Every time the comet gets close to the sun, some of the ice present in the comet melts which produces a large amount of debris. This debris moves away from the comet and becomes a part of its tail which is visible part of the comet. The solid parts of the tail are the meteoroids and they spread along the entire orbit of the comet which is termed as a meteoroid stream. As the Earth orbits around the sun, its path may cross the meteoroid stream and a meteor shower follows. When the meteoroid stream is particularly dense, then we get to witness the meteor storm and having witnessed one myself, I can guarantee that the sight is truly spectacular. People Behind the Concept It is believed that Irish astronomer George Johnstone Clooney collaborating with the British astronomer Arthur Matthew Weld Downing and Adolf Berberich belonging to the Royal Astronomical Computation Institute in Berlin, Germany offered the very first idea of the meteoroid stream in the 1890. They were able to calculate as to how the meteoroids once freed from the comet would travel at low speeds when compared to the comet itself would start drifting after completing one orbit. This effect was attributed to simple orbital wherein the materials drift laterally away from the comet as some particles make a wider orbit when compared to other particles. The gravitational pull of the Earth’s atmosphere would decide where the dust trails would pass the Earth’s atmosphere. It is a fair possibility that some years, the dust particles can completely miss the Earth’s orbit. Major Meteor Showers If you want to watch meteor showers then the best time of the year is the night of January 3. The shower has been named Quadrantids and this particular shower can produce over a close to 140 meteors per hour. The source of this shower is not a comet but a minor planet, 2003 EH1 which suffered a catastrophic breakup in 1490. However, the showers are very faint and the peak hours last only for a few hours. Hence, you will have to be in a good spot and at an ideal point to watch the shower in all its glory and the best place to watch this particular shower is from the Northern Hemisphere. But people in Southern Hemisphere need not be disappointed. As a matter of fact, they get to witness a meteor shower termed Eta Aquarids which consists of debris from the famous Halley’s Comet. This shower peaks on the night of May 5 and the rate of meteors is about 30 per hour. The meteor shower ‘Geminids’ is considered to be the best annual shower. It peaks around the night of December 13 and the rate of meteor is around 70 per hour. The source of this shower is also a minor planet, 3200 Phaethon. It is best visible from the Northern Hemisphere and it is believed that due to the extreme cold conditions, the air tends to be more transparent and this is the reason as to why this particular shower is spectacular. Sporadic Meteor Showers When the meteoroids collide with each other and can become a part of the sporadic meteors background. They form isolated meteors and are not a part of any shower. Asteroids Asteroids are considered to be remnants of an early broken planet of the solar system. Asteroids have no fixed shape and are too small to be spherical in shape. They are ellipsoids (two dimensional figure), dumbbell or irregularly shaped. As they have different shapes, they also vary in their size. The first asteroid Ceres, discovered in January 1801 by Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi, is the largest known asteroid and is 940 km in diameter. Some of the smallest asteroids are just 6 meters in diameter. The mass of all the asteroids added together, is believed to lesser than the mass of the Moon. Only 200,000 asteroids have been discovered so far, but billion more undiscovered asteroids still exit in our solar system. Asteroid Belt Most asteroids lie in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, however there are more belts in the solar system, namely the ones beyond Neptune’s orbit. The belt itself has interesting origination theories. Most astronomers believe that the belt is a broken planet, while some say that the belt is primordial material that never coalesced into a planet because of Jupiter’s gravitational pull. The asteroid belt lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and contains more than 200 asteroids larger than 100 km in diameter, and more than 750,000 asteroids with diameters larger than 1 km. Most asteroids are found in this belt because of the gravitational interaction between the solar system and the celestial bodies in it. As opposed to the fiction made popular by various depictions of the asteroid belt, it is not at all dense. The region is so vast that asteroids are hundreds of thousands of kilometers away from their closest neighbor. The asteroids are so small and far away from each other that they appear as faint stars, and except for Ceres, are not bright enough to be seen without some telescopic aid. Only the asteroid Vesta, on rare occasions of an extremely clear dark sky can become visible to the naked eye. What are Asteroids Composed Of? Asteroids are made of different minerals and substances. This depends on the planet they broke away from in a collision, as well as the chemical reactions they might have experienced while orbiting in the solar system. The asteroids closest to the Sun are mostly carbonaceous and the ones further away are composed of silicate rock. The metallic asteroids are made of 70-80% iron and the remaining is nickel with many other metals such as iridium mixed in. Some are also made of half silicate and half metallic. The asteroid Ceres is composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle, whereas Vesta has a nickel-iron core, basaltic crust and a covering of magnesium iron silicate (olivine mantle). Asteroids composition has been classified as the following: C class asteroids: They are found in the Earth’s outer belt and are darker and more carbonaceous than the ones found in the S class. D class asteroids: They are also known as Trojan asteroids of Jupiter and are dark and carbonaceous in composition. S class asteroids: They are found in the Earth’s inner belt, closer to Mars and are composed of mostly stone and iron. V class asteroids: They are a far-out group of asteroids that follow a path between the orbits of Jupiter and Uranus, and are made of igneous, eruptive materials. A near-Earth asteroid collided with the Earth about 65 million years ago, which triggered environmental changes, leading to the extinction of the dinosaurs. This asteroid created a huge circular depression called the Chicxulub Basin and is centered in Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, a major tourist attraction. Though the chances of asteroid collision with the Earth is very rare, they do come very close to our planet due to collisions and gravitational tugs on the highly elliptical Sun’s orbit. Most asteroids burn up in the atmosphere and never reach the Earth. NASA projects, such as the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) and the Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) main objectives are to detect and intercept asteroids or other celestial bodies coming close to the Earth before they cause untold damage to our planet. Asteroids are small celestial bodies composed of rock and metal, that revolve around the Sun. Their size can vary: some asteroids are large and roughly spherical in shape, due to which they appear like miniature planets; while the others are small and irregularly shaped. The matter of these celestial bodies also differs. The asteroid ‘Vesta’, is believed to have a nickel-iron core, olivine mantle and basaltic crust, while the asteroid ’10 Hygiea’ is composed of carbonaceous chondrite. Most of the small asteroids are piles of rubble held together by gravity. Some asteroids supposedly have traces of amino-acids and other organic compounds, and it is assumed that the impact of asteroids on the Earth could have initiated life on the planet by seeding it with the necessary chemical substances. Although, it is believed that the asteroids may have planted life on the Earth, they are capable of having catastrophic effect on the planet as well. Asteroids with a diameter of 5 to 10 meters, and energy equal to 15 kilotons of TNT, enter into the Earth’s atmosphere approximately once every year; while, those with a diameter of over 50 meters enter the Earth’s atmosphere approximately once in a thousand years. Their impact can be devastating if they hit the Earth, but they disintegrate in the upper atmosphere and most of the particles are vaporized, thus rendering them harmless. In the distant past, our planet has experienced a massive climate change and large-scale extinction of animal and plant species, ascribed to the impact of some large asteroids on the planet. The exogenesis theory suggests that origin of life on the Earth must have been triggered by the impact of some asteroid, carrying organic chemicals needed to initiate life form. The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, which led to the end of dinosaurs and the Permian-Triassic extinction event that led to the end of the Permian period finishing off 90% of the species on the planet, are believed to be the result of an asteroid impact on the Earth. The craters on the solid bodies in the solar system, which were attributed to volcanic activities till 1960s, were actually formed due to the impact of celestial bodies. Researchers have determined that in the last 600 million years, 60 objects with a diameter of five km or more, have struck the Earth. Even the smallest of these object possessed energy of ten million megatons of TNT, and would have formed a crater, approximately 95 km in diameter, on the surface of our planet. The Rio Cuarto craters in Argentina are believed to have formed due to the impact of asteroids that struck this area around 10,000 years ago. In 1490, ten thousand people reportedly lost their lives due to a hail of stones from the sky. This hail of stones is assumed to be result of the disintegration of a large asteroid, after it entered the Earth’s atmosphere. In 1908, a mid-air explosion of an asteroid destroyed 80 million trees, within an area of 830 miles, near the Podkamennaya Tunguska River, in Si beria. In many cases, the sighting of a foreign body, such as an asteroid or a meteoroids is reported as a fireball in the sky. Millions of asteroids will pass by the Earth in the years to come. Though, they are unknown now, they are detectable as they come closer to the planet. The Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) and the Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) are projects initiated by NASA to detect asteroids or other such foreign bodies coming close to the Earth. The need of the hour is to develop an intercept system in space, to destroy or deflect foreign objects heading towards our planet, before they prove catastrophic. Asteroids are celestial bodies consisting of rocks and metals. They are mainly concentrated in the region known as the asteroid belt which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Asteroids can be as big as Ceres, which is close to 1000 kilometers in diameter, or can be just a few feet in diameter. Whatever the size, asteroids are neither big enough to be called planets nor are they as small as comets. They are classified as minor planets that include the Kuiper Belt Objects. Discovery On January 1, 1801, Giuseppe Piazzi discovered the first asteroid which he initially thought to be a comet. He named this asteroid Ceres, after the Sicilian Goddess of grain. Ceres is also the largest asteroid to have been discovered so far. Soon, other large asteroids like Pallas, Juno and Vista were discovered. By the end of the 19th century, several hundred asteroids were discovered. Formation of Asteroids It was once believed that asteroids were formed by the explosion of a planet orbiting between Mars and Jupiter. However, according to present day astronomers, asteroids are debris left behind by the Big Bang that could not come together to form a tenth planet because of the effect of Jupiter’s gravitational pull. Asteroid Hits Asteroids have been hitting the Earth since millions of years. However, due to the friction with Earth’s atmosphere most of the asteroids get burnt. The asteroids that enter the Earth’ s atmosphere are called meteors while the ones that get burnt and appear as shooting stars are called meteorites. According to the Giant Impact Theory, the Moon was created when Theia, an asteroid of the size of Mars, collided with the Earth in the early days of the solar system. However, some consider Theia to be more of a planetoid than an asteroid. The largest crater caused by an asteroid hit is the Chicxulub Crater in Mexico that is 180 km in diameter. The asteroid that formed the crater had a diameter of 10 km. This collision is supposed to be responsible for the extinction of a large number of flora and fauna including the dinosaur. However, the evidence of the largest asteroid hit is in the Vredefort crater in South Africa that is 300 km in diameter. Impacts of Asteroid Hits The damage that an asteroid’s impact can cause depends mainly upon its mass and velocity, as these are the two factors that determine the energy that is released when an asteroid hits the Earth. While some asteroids are capable of sending thermal waves that can incinerate most flora and fauna within a few hundred kilometers, some larger asteroids can create huge impacts causing magma to cover areas as big as continents. The worst effect of an asteroid hit is the blocking out of sunlight for months together due to formation of dust clouds and soot in the upper atmosphere. This would hamper the green plants’ ability to prepare food through the process of photosynthesis and the food chain would be disrupted. Near-Earth Asteroids Near-Earth asteroids are those that have moved closer to the Earth’s orbit as they have been knocked out of the asteroid belt due to collision with other asteroids or comets, or due to the gravitational forces of Jupiter. They are classified into the following three groups: The Amors: These are near-Earth asteroids that cross the orbit of Mars but do not go out of the Earth’s orbit. The Apollos: The orbits of these near-Earth asteroids cross the Earth’s orbit but have an orbital period of greater than one year. The Atens: These near-Earth asteroids have orbits that cross the Earth’s orbit but have an orbital period of less than one year. Asteroids are currently being monitored for their probability of colliding with the Earth. Such studies have predicted that asteroids may hit the Earth on February 1, 2019 and March 16, 2880. The probability of the 2880 collision is as high as 1 in 300. A number of projects in the field of astronomy, like Spacewatch, Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking and Catalina Sky Survey are being carried out to detect any threat of such catastrophes. Comets A comet is a small body in space. It was matter of great interest to astronomers like Sir Edmond Halley. Many decades later, comets still remain a challenging mystery for the field of astronomy. Space research institutes around the world have reported the existence of 3628 comets that are known and studied. Annually, an average of one comet is sighted by the naked eye from the surface of the Earth. According to the definitions given by the various space research organizations, a comet can be defined as a space body that travels in an elliptical orbit around the sun. Most of the comets travel in elliptical orbits. When the comet comes in the vicinity of the star it is orbiting around, its comma-like tail gets illuminated. A majority of comets are visible only through telescopes and other aids. There are however, some comets which are also visible to the naked eye. What is a Comet Made Up of? A comet is principally made up of ice, dust and different forms of gases. The nature of the components differs from comet to comet. The central part of a comet that looks like a ball is termed as the nucleus. The nucleus is principally made up of ice and frozen gases. The frozen components also include many other compounds like ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide. Rocks are another component of the nucleus. Due to such composition, the nucleus of the comet often resembles a huge ball of dirt and snow. It is also believed by some astronomers, that the nucleus of a comet is rather fragile because several comets have split into parts without any explainable reason except immense velocity. The huge elliptical orbit takes the comet in the range of heat of the star around which it is orbiting. When the comet enters the inner parts of the solar system, the frozen content of the nucleus starts melting. The gases and water within the nucleus vaporize as a result of radiation from the star and the solar wind. The immense velocity of the comet and the solar wind, push the vaporized matter away from the nucleus. This gives the comet it’s distinct tail and the comma-like appearance. The high amount of heat and the ions (charged particles that are formed due to the heat of the sun) cause the tail of the comet to glow. How are Comets Formed? According to their formation or birth, the comets can be classified into two types. The first type is short-term comets which originate in the Kuiper belt as space bodies beyond the orbit of Pluto. The gravitational pull of the planets in the solar system, causes the origin of short term comets. These comets enter the solar system and take the form of active and glowing comets. Long term comets originate as traveling bodies in the Oort cloud (located around 50,000 light years away from the sun). The gravitational attraction of the planets in the solar system and other gravitational forces cause these comets to form elliptical orbits. Death of a Comet The study of comets has revealed that they have a fragile structure. Sometimes, comets split into parts due to sheer velocity. The entry and exit of comets in the solar system in course of its orbit, reduces the amount of matter (ice and frozen gases) in it. Due to this reduction in matter, the comets break-up and disperse into clouds. A dead comet is nothing but an asteroid or a similar form of a space body. Sometimes the comets also crash in other planets when their orbits cross each other. The most famous example of such a comet is the Shoemaker Levy 9, that crashed into Jupiter. For astronomers who have spent their lives studying comets, it a very heart-breaking moment to gaze at a dying comet. The Halley’s Comet is said to be one of the most beautiful comets. Another very beautiful comet is the Hale-Bopp, that was discovered in the year 1995, on 23rd July. It was predicted by astronomers that the Halley’s Comet would be sighted in the November of 1835. Mark Twain, the famous writer, was born just two weeks after the sighting. He developed a very special liking towards the Halley’s Comet. In his biography he comments,†I came in with the Halley’s Comet, and expect to go with it. The Almighty has said no doubt, Now here are two unaccountable freaks; they came in together; they must go out together.† Halley’s Comet was next sighted on 20th April, 1910. Twain ended the journey of his life the very next day. The journey of any comet is indeed like that of Mark Twain. It is remarkably long, fast, adventurous as it streaks across the dark sky. Haley’s comet Historical Spottings British scientist, Edmond Halley who observed the comet in 1682, was the first person to establish its periodic reappearance after every 75-76 years. He studied the comet and quite accurately predicted that it had earlier appeared in 1531 and in 1607. It was named ‘Halley’ in his honor and was observed again in 1758 as stated by him. It was last seen in February 1986. However, this was not the first time the comet was in focus. The first sighting recorded, was way back in 240 BC, by the Chinese and was mentioned in a chronicle, ‘Records of the Great Historian’. The comet also finds a mention in a Babylonian clay inscription of 164 BC. It has always been a subject of great interest, since it was believed to have an influence on the contemporary events. Armenian king Tigranes II, had its image printed on the coins issued in his regime after it was sighted in 87 BC. Therefore, even though the recurrence of the comet was an unknown fact, people were fascinated b y its appearance. The bright star that appeared in the night sky in 12 BC, coinciding with the birth of Jesus, is widely believed to be the Halley’s comet. Giotto Di Bondone, the famous Italian painter, who lived before the renaissance era, painted it in his work ‘The Star of Bethlehem’ in the Nativity, in 1305. He had seen the comet appear in 1301 and was impressed by the spectacle. In the middle ages, the appearance of a comet was considered to be a warning sign of a forthcoming danger. The most famous incident of spotting a comet during this period, was in 1066, before the Battle of Hastings. King Harold who had lost the battle, was believed to have seen the comet due to which he was cursed. In fact, the Bayeux Tapestry in Normandy, France, signifies the Norman victory in this battle with an image of King Harold looking at the comet in the sky. In 1456, Pope Calixtus III had condemned its appearance considering it to be an evil omen. Three years prior to this, Europe was defeated by the Ottoman Empire. Human beings have always blamed celestial phenomena, whenever they have not been able to explain the causes of certain unfavorable events. Historically, the presence of a comet in the night sky was commonly cited as the reason behind difficult situations that were beyond the reasoning of common man. A French physician, Ambroise, had described the pitiful conditions of middle ages, when a comet was seen just before the spread of a big epidemic. According to him, some people were scared to death while others fell sick on seeing the comet. It was believed to be some ‘evil form’ leaving behind a trail of blood, believed to be a sign of misery. Recent Spottings In the 16th and the 17th century, scientists learned to calculate the speed and distance at which comets travel around the Sun. Once, Edmond Halley had established the year of its reappearance, Halley’s comet became a matter of great interest. Although, he didn’t live to see his prediction coming true, his observation had a significant impact on the way society perceived comets. The sighting of a comet, especially Halley’s comet became less of a concern and more of a curiosity among people. Once people realized that comets are orbiting bodies just like planets, they became less apprehensive on the arrival of a comet in the Earth’s visibility zone. The change in the attitude of the people was seen in the depiction of the comet in the contemporary pictures. Halley’s comet was a subject of scientific study and was depicted as a beautiful heavenly body in the sky. Famous American writer Mark Twain was born in 1835, the year when Halley’s comet ha d appeared. He predicted in 1909 that since he had ‘come’ with the comet he will ‘go out’ with it. Sure enough, he passed away a year after the comet reappeared in 1910. In the 1900s, it had appeared twice; once in 1910 and then in 1986. Further studies gave us a deep insight into the structure, composition and orbital journey of many different comets. Halley’s comet has one of the shortest orbital paths. It is classified as a short period comet, i.e. comets having an orbit period of 200 years or less. Once upon a time, it belonged to the long period class, but due to the gravitational force of planets, its orbit shortened over a period of time. Today, it is known that comets like ‘Hale Bopp’ which appeared in 1997, will reappear after 4200 years! Thus, Halley’s comet is the most frequently spotted one. Recently, it was seen in February 1986. During this visit, it was subjected to its biggest scrutiny ever. Five spacecrafts from The European Space Agency, Japan and the USSR were launched to study its surface. Structure and Composition of Halley’s Comet Halley’s comet is a big mass of ice and dust, having an elliptical orbit and shaped like a peanut. It has a highly elongated orbit, taking it very close to the Sun. It flings off far in the outer solar system, similar to a slingshot motion. The composition is mainly of water, sodium monoxide, methane, ammonia, hydrocarbons, iron and sodium. Its closest distance from the Sun was found to be just 0.6 AU (astronomical unit) and the farthest distance was calculated to be 35 AU, roughly the same distance as that of Pluto. It orbits the Sun in a retrograde or in the direction opposite to that of the planets’ revolution. The speed with respect to the Earth is quite high, since it is highly eccentric and inclined. The day time is relatively more on its surface and its maximum temperature rises up to 77 degrees celsius. Due to its large size and a well-defined and regular orbit, it was easy for the probe missions photograph it closely and study its surface. The mass of the comet is 1.7Ãâ€"1015 kilograms and the size of the nucleus has been estimated to be 15 km Ãâ€" 7 km Ãâ€" 7 km. Winds blowing near its surface are so strong that 1 gram particle of dust which hit the Giotto space probe, briefly destabilized it. Halley’s comet will next appear in 2062. Comets have always been a fascination for human beings and will continue to mesmerize generations to come, as we discover more interesting facts about these spectacular fireballs, the comets. Comet lullin Comet Lulin was discovered on July 11, 2007, by the duo of Ye Quanzhi and Lin Chi-Sheng. A non-periodic comet, Lulin appears to be greenish in color. This green color is attributed to the presence of gases such as cyanogen and diatomic carbon, which produce a green glow when illuminated by sunlight in the vacuum of the space. Officially designated as C/2007 N3 (Lulin), it is also known as the ‘Comet of Cooperation’ in China and Taiwan, as the two individuals involved in its discovery, were from these two countries. This comet was first photographed by Taiwanese astronomer Lin Chi-Sheng on July 11, 2007, while he was working on the Lulin Sky Survey Project (LUSS) at the Lulin observatory in Nantou, Taiwan. The Lulin Sky Survey Project aims to identify the numerous small objects in the solar system, particularly those that pose possible hazards to our planet. Lin used a 16-inch telescope to photograph this comet, which was initially assumed to be an asteroid. A few days later, Ye Quanzhi, a 19-year old student of meteorology from Sun Yat-Sen University, China, recognized this comet while going through Lin’s photographs. Its status of being a comet was confirmed after the presence of coma, the nebulous envelope around the nucleus of the comet, was noticed. Both, Lin and Quanzhi were accredited with the discovery of this new comet. As it was first noticed from the Lulin Observatory, it was named as Comet Lulin. Comet Lulin was seen in the Libra constellation from January to March 2009. In January, it was getting brighter and could be seen just before dawn; while in February, the brightness reached its peak. Eventually, in March, it started to fade as it went farther away from the Earth. While it was approaching the Earth, it had a typical tail pointing away from the Sun, as well as an ‘anti-tail’ which was directly pointing towards the sun. Although, it was assumed that this anti-tail was observed only in photographs, so me observers reported that it was visible even from a telescope in February 2009. According to Brian Marsden, an astronomer at Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Massachusetts, this comet’s closest approach to the sun was on January 10, 2009 when it reached a distance of 113 million miles from the sun. He noticed that the comet was moving in a retrograde orbit that is near-parabolic. On February 24, Comet Lulin came the closest to the Earth, at a distance of 0.41 AU or 38 million miles to be precise. On February 4, 2009, a team of Italian astronomers, under the leadership of Ernesto Guido, witnessed a strange phenomenon taking place in comet Lulin. While photographing the comet with a remotely controlled telescope in New Mexico, they saw that its tail suddenly disconnected. Ernesto attributed this odd phenomenon to magnetic disturbance of the solar wind hitting the comet. Earlier, this had been observed with Comet Encke too, when coronal mass ejection occurred, due to such magnetic storms. Photographs taken by NASA’s Swift Gamma-ray Explorer satellite in ultra-violet and X-rays show that Lulin is shedding 800 gallons of water every second. Observations by NASA also revealed that the surface material of the comet was burning away due to sun’s heat. This sighting of Comet Lulin was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for the whole world, as there is no possibility of this comet returning to the inner solar system, at least not for the next thousand years. Human kind has always looked to the heavens in awe and wonder, and sometimes in fear. Perhaps no other astronomical phenomenon except a total solar eclipse has historically evoked as much fear as comets. When the specter of fear is removed, however, they emerge as strikingly beautiful objects in the sky. It was once believed that if earth passed through a tail of a comet, its inhabitants would die; this theory has been discredited. Comets are messengers from a time long past. Most are chunks of dirty ice, locked away in the Oort cloud for billions of years. (Oort cloud: – It is the source for long period comets, with orbital periods of greater than two hundred years.) Comets are familiar to nearly everyone as striking star like objects with long tails stretching across a wide band of the sky. The most famous comet, Halley’s comet makes its return to the skies every seventy-five years. The word â€Å"comet† is derived from a Greek word meaning â€Å"long haired† Comets were greatly feared before the twentieth century as bad omens. Since then, they have been identified and cataloged as objects that come from deep space. Most of them occupy orbits that carry them far outside the solar system. Many of them make only a single approach to the sun and never return again, while others exist in stable, but highly elliptical orbits that allow them to return after an extended period of time, such as the Halley’s comet. In 1986, the European space probe Giotto passed about 600 kilometers from the Comet Halley as it made its close approach to the sun. The probe verified existing theories that comets are made up of ices covered by black dust or soil. The spacecraft confirmed a theory that had been advanced prior to the reconnaissance that described comets as â€Å"dirty snowballs.† Using data taken by the spacecraft, scientists determined that the dust is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Other metals have also been discovered in comets, such as iron, calcium, nickel, potassium, copper and silicon. Halley’s comet was one of the darkest objects ever seen in the solar system; it was basically flat black. Comets are composed of a mixture of ices and dust. As a comet approaches the sun, it absorbs the suns energy and warms up. The main body of the comet is called the nucleus. As the nucleus warms, the ice beneath the comets soil evaporates. Because the comet has no atmosphere, the evaporated substance (also called a volatile) escapes into the vacuum of space as a gaseous envelope that surrounds the comet called â€Å"coma.† As the coma grows, it forms a plume of vapor that carries away some of the comets surface as well. This mixture of evaporated volatile particles and dust is carried away from the comet by solar wind, is ionized by high-energy particles, and creates the spectacular tail of the comet. The comet’s tail, glowing in the solar wind, can stream behind the comet for millions of kilometers. The nucleus of the comet consists of mostly volatile ices and dust. The ice is nearly all water ice, but there is also evidence of ices composed of carbon dioxide and methane. More elementary compounds of nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon monoxide may exist as volatile ices. Comets are typically small bodies (comparatively!!). Halley’s comet is a potato shaped object, 14 by 17 kilometers. The largest known comet is Chiron, which is estimated to be approximately 200 kilometers in diameter. Comets are thought to have formed as the solar system evolved. The material of which comets are composed was constructed by accretion at the outer edge of the disk of material that ultimately became the sun and planets. Because the comet material was fashioned at the outer edge of the solar system, the sun did not evaporate the volatiles in the cometary material. At the same time, the giant planets of the solar system formed at what would become the outer orbits of the solar system. These massive planets encountered the newly formed comets, and the ones that were not engulfed by the giant planets were, over the first billion years, catapulted into interstellar space by the planets massive gravitational fields. Not all comets met that fate, however. Some were gently nudged into stable orbits closer to the sun. Others were flung into the inner solar system and impacted the inner planets. Relevance: – The study of comets involves detailed knowledge of its composition of the outer regions of the solar system and the space between the last planet and 100,000 astronomical units onwards. Cometary study also seeks to understand complex gravitational interactions between bodies separated by wide distances and even gravitational interactions between tiny comets, their behavior when approaching the sun, and something of the makeup and evolution of the early solar system. New comets approaching the sun for the first time have been held in deep freeze in the Oort cloud and are thought to be composed of primordial material of the newly forming solar system. They have been tied up in the Oort cloud for billions of years at temperatures slightly above absolute zero. As they approach the sun, their internal gases begin to steam away. A detailed study of an approaching comet may tell cosmologists about the composition of the early solar systems. Comets and their approach have also hinted at the existence of the elusive brown dwarf, thought to be one of the most common bodies of interstellar space. Because they are so dim, they are all but invisible from Earth. On the other hand, because brown dwarfs are thought to be so plentiful, the study of comets and their orbits may give the first real clues to the former’s reality and abundance. In the early 1980s the existence of the galactic tidal action was merely speculation. Since then, careful study of cometary orbits and approaches has favorable supported the theory of galactic tides. In the close approach of Halley’s comet by an unmanned spacecraft in 1986, a wealth of information was recovered on the shape, behavior, and composition of comets. The existence of the Oort cloud and the concept gravitational interactions by passing objects in space have led to the theory of periodic comet showers. Such comet showers, separated by periods of tens of millions of years, may be responsible for the mass extinction on Earth. There is a wide speculation that Earth was struck by one or more comets 70 million years ago, which wiped out the dinosaurs. Some scientists have speculated that this extinction was the result of a shower of comets from the Oort cloud, sent on their close approach to the sun by a passing star or brown dwarf through the Oort cloud. Comets have been used to judge vast distances, evaluate the composition of the solar system as it was being born, and even test the idea that the gravity of the entire galaxy can make a difference to the smallest objects in space. Comets have been used as yardsticks to evaluate what may be the most type of star in the galaxy-the brown dwarf-which ironically is one that may never be seen. They have also been called dirty snowballs. Halley’s comet was so black that it was the darkest object ever seen in space. Yet, from these dirty specks of ice, cosmologists have witnessed some of the most spectacular light shows. Ultimately comets may also generate clues to some of the most fundamental secrets about the solar system and planets. From these tiny messengers, cosmologists may unlock and examine pristine elements from creation itself.